Linguistics Plus Essay

A. The Backround Of Study In the preceding chapters , linguistics has been discussed mainly as the scientific study of languages. According to this view, linguistic is a theoritical, abstract, academic subject. It describes the nature of human language activity in scientific terms and linguistics are see to belong to different schools of thought and to hold competing linguistic theories. We have seen what this view of linguistics has to contribute to language teaching. There is another view of linguistics which cuts across all schools of linguistic thought and is common ground among all linguistics. In this view,linguistics is abody of attitudes and knowledge which result from the study of things like nature of language as a communicative, social activity : language in the individual , his speech mechanism and mental capacities for language : language in society : varieties of language , the rigorous description of particular languages , etc . This common ground the linguistics is immediately relevant to whole field of language teaching . B. The Formulation Of Study Based on the backrgound of study that explained, we formulate some problems that will be explained in this discussion, there are : 1. What is the meaning of psycholinguistics? 2. What is language acquisition? 3. is the first language learning the same as first language acuisition? 4. What is the interference from L1 in learning L2? C. The Perpose Of Writing To obtain a focused, it is necessary to tell the purpose of this paper. The purposes of writing this paper are: 1. Make the readers know about Psycholinguistic , language acquisition , First and second language, Motivation in L2 learning , and Language Interference. 2. Knowing the different between First and Secong Language D. Research Of Methodology. There are many methods that can be used in educational research, such as historical method, descriptive method, experimental method etc. We use the description method in order to meet the purpose of the research. CHAPTER 2 LINGUISTIC PLUS (CHAPTER 6 IN BOOK) A. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PSIKOLINGUISTIK As its name suggests, psycholinguistics is a field study that combines psychology and linguistics. The term itself was coined in 1951. Though the study had been going on eveb in the nineteenth century in the form of the study of language development. It includes a great variety of topics that are of interest to language teachers. Some of these are: how language is received and produced by language user : our memory span of language: motivation in language learning : how L1 Habits interface with L2 learning billingualism and mental development : the use of language in concept formation; and language acquistion or development. Seperti namanya, psikolinguistik adalah studi lapangan yang menggabungkan psikologi dan linguistik. Istilah itu sendiri diciptakan pada tahun 1951. Meskipun penelitian telah terjadi bahkan pada abad kesembilan belas dalam bentuk studi perkembangan bahasa. Ini mencakup berbagai macam topik yang menarik bagi guru bahasa. Beberapa di antaranya adalah: bagaimana bahasa diterima dan dihasilkan oleh pengguna bahasa: memori kita rentang bahasa: motivasi dalam belajar bahasa: bagaimana Kebiasaan L1 antarmuka dengan pembelajaran belajar L2 dan perkembangan mental: penggunaan bahasa dalam pembentukan konsep, dan akuisisi bahasa atau pembangunan. B. LANGUAGE ACQUISTION TRANSISI BAHASA The last mentioned topic is currently being much investigated by TG grammarians because their linguistic theory makes such on the language producing ability of human beings. It is therefore of interest to them, as it is to teachers, to find out how language is acquired. ( it may be noted at this point that they make a distinction between language acquisition or development and language learning . The first language or mother tongue is acquired, while the second language is learned. ) Topik terakhir yang disebutkan saat ini sedang diselidiki oleh banyak tatabahasawan tradisional grammar karena teori linguistik mereka membuatnya seperti bahasa dapat menghasilkan kemampuan manusia. Oleh karena itu sangat menarik bagi mereka, terutama untuk guru, untuk mengetahui bagaimana bahasa diperoleh. (Mungkin terdapat pada bahasan ini bahwa mereka membuat perbedaan antara penguasaan bahasa atau pengembangan dan pembelajaran bahasa asli atau bahasa ibu yang langsung diperoleh, sedangkan bahasa asing harus dipelajari. ) There are two theories of language acquisition: the cognitive-code learning theory f-voured by the transformational generative linguists and the habit-formation theory of the structural linguists. The habit-formation theory is in effect the aplication of learning theory to language acquisition. It involves conditioning and reinforcement to shape a response until it is like the model . An example mat make the process clear. An infant may accidentally produce what sound like â€Å"mama† ,on his babbling and the mother reinforces this by smiling , kissing, cuddling him.. This encourages him to produce the sounds again and the nearer they approach the word â€Å"mama† , the more pleasure the mother shows until the child learns to say the word correctly every time with reference to her. The whole process is described as â€Å" shaping† the response and strengthening it by selective reinforcement. The response is encouraged to recur or strengthened by the smile or nod , or whatever is reinforcing to the child. Repeated occurences of the response from habit. Imitation plays as important a role as repetition in the theory. The child imitates the adults he hears and is again reinforced for correct responses. This theory of language acquisition is based on the view that language is behaviour that results from habits and habits are formed by practice and repetion. Ada dua teori akuisisi bahasa: teori belajar kode kognitif mempelajari teori f-voured oleh ahli bahasa transformasi generatif linguistik dan teori-kebiasaan hasil pembentukan ahli bahasa struktural. Teori formasi kebiasaan yang pada kenyataannya aplikasi dari teori belajar akuisisi bahasa. Ini melibatkan pengkondisian dan penguatan untuk membentuk respon sampai seperti model atau contoh yang ada, misalnya sebuah kaset untuk membuatnya sebagai contoh. Contoh lain adalah Bayi yang dapat menghasilkan sebuah kata yang terdengar seperti â€Å"mama†, saat mengoceh dan ibunya memperkuat ini dengan memberikan senyuman, mencium,atau memeluk dia . Hal ini dapat mendorong dia untuk menghasilkan suara lagi dan semakin dekat dengan kata â€Å"mama† yang sebenarnya, respon senang yang ditunjukan ibunya itu terus ditunjukan hinngga anak belajar mengucapkan kata kata dengan. Seluruh proses yang digambarkan sebagai â€Å"pembentuk† respon dan penguatan dengan penguatan selektif. Respon yang didorong untuk muncul kembali atau diperkuat oleh senyum atau anggukan, atau apapun yang dapat memperkuat kepada anak untuk melakukan sesuatu. Kejadian yang diulang dari respon dan dari kebiasaan. Permainan meniru sama penting peranannya sebagai teori. Anak meniru orang dewasa, ia mendengar lagi dan diperkuat oleh respon yang diberikan orang disekitarnya. Teori pemerolehan bahasa didasarkan pada pandangan bahwa bahasa adalah perilaku yang dihasilkan dari kebiasaan dan kebiasaan yang dibentuk oleh praktek dan pengulangan. The cognitive-code learning theory states that language is rule-governed behaviour and that in language acquisition, the infant learns the set of rules that will produce the sentences of the language. How does he arrive at the set of rules? TG grammarians say human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), which enables the child to form a series of hypotheses about the language which he hears , as he grows up. At each stage in his language development he tests his hypothesis (the set of rules he has formulated so far) against what he hears ( the language data) and revises it accordingly , until he reaches adult competence. But what does the LAD consist of? The theory is that it consists of those linguistic universals to be found the deep, deep structure of all languages. There is no agreement or certainty yet about what these universals are apart from the  fact that they must be certain abstract syntactic and semantic categories and relationships, though there may be a neurophysiological basis in the brain. Examples of such relationships which have been postulated are: those between noun and verb as in case grammar; that between subject and predicate; and catagories like NP , VP , Adv. These universals are said to be present in the structure of all languages but each language realises them in different way in surface structure and language learning consists in learning how it is done in that particular language . The linguists are making cross-cultural studies of language acquisition in order to get evidence of linguistic universals, but the data collected so far are still sketchy though certain features in language appear in about the same sequence and at about the same age all over the world. Teori Kode kognitif belajar menyatakan bahwa bahasa adalah aturan aturan perilaku dan bahwa dalam akuisisi bahasa, bayi mempelajari seperangkat aturan yang akan menghasilkan kalimat bahasa. Bagaimana ia bisa sampai pada seperangkat aturan? Tatabahasawan TG mengatakan manusia dilahirkan dengan perangkat penguasaan bahasa (LAD), yang memungkinkan anak untuk membentuk serangkaian hipotesis tentang bahasa yang ia dengar, saat ia tumbuh. Pada setiap tahap dalam perkembangan bahasa, ia menguji hipotesis tersebut (seperangkat aturan yang telah dirumuskan sejauh ini) terhadap apa yang ia dengar (data bahasa) dan merevisi (menerjemahkan artinya), sampai ia mencapai kompetensi dewasa. Tapi apa saja penyusun LAD itu ? Tidak ada kesepakatan atau kepastian tentang apa saja penyusun LAD tersebut dan tak ada yang terlepas dari kenyataan bahwa orang orang universal linguistik harus memastikan kategori sintaksis dan semantik abstrak, meskipun mungkin ada dasar neurofisiologi di otak. Contoh hubungan tersebut yang telah disebutkan adalah antara nomina dan verba seperti dalam tata bahasa, bahwa antara subjek dan predikat, dan kategori seperti NP, VP, Adv. Itu dikatakan terdapat dalam struktur dari semua bahasa, tetapi setiap bahasa menempatkan mereka dengan cara yang berbeda dalam struktur permukaan dan pembelajaran tertentu. Para ahli bahasa membuat studi lintas-budaya , untuk mendapatkan bukti yang umum tentang linguistik, tetapi data yang dikumpulkan sejauh ini masih samar meskipun fitur tertentu dalam bahasa muncul di sekitar urutan yang sama dan pada sekitar usia yang sama di seluruh dunia . The teacher of second language needs to take of these two theories of language acquisition since they have given rise to schools of thought on language teaching. If language acquisition is a matter of habit formation, then the language teacher must concentrate on performance. Let the pupils imitate a model and give them plenty of pattern drill to establish habits of behaviour. Reinforce them gor correct responses and elimitate wrong responses by a lack of reinforcement. Let them learn inductively, inferring the rules for themselves after much practice rather than receiving the rules for explanations at the begining. If, on the other hand, language acquisition is a matter of learning a code, then the language teacher must ensure that the pupils internalise the rules yhat will enable them to produce sentences. Explanations of the sentences structures and explicit knowledge of the rules must then play a larger rule in language teaching. Para guru bahasa kedua perlu mengambil dari kedua teori pemerolehan bahasa karena mereka telah melahirkan aliran pemikiran pengajaran bahasa. Jika akuisisi bahasa adalah masalah pembentukan kebiasaan, maka guru bahasa harus berkonsentrasi pada kinerja. Biarkan siswa meniru model dan memberi mereka banyak bor pola untuk membangun kebiasaan perilaku. Memperkuat mereka tanggapan gor benar dan elimitate tanggapan yang salah oleh kurangnya penguatan. Biarkan mereka belajar induktif, menyimpulkan aturan untuk diri mereka sendiri setelah banyak latihan daripada menerima aturan untuk penjelasan di awal. Jika, di sisi lain, penguasaan bahasa adalah masalah belajar kode, maka guru bahasa harus memastikan bahwa siswa menginternalisasi yhat aturan akan memungkinkan mereka untuk menghasilkan kalimat. Penjelasan dari struktur kalimat dan pengetahuan eksplisit aturan kemudian harus memainkan aturan yang lebih besar dalam pengajaranbahasa. How is the language teacher to decide between the two theories of language learning? What grammatical theory is most useful to language teachers? To answer these questions, i would just like to refer the reader to the paper by J. B Carroll that i cited in chapter 1. In that paper he says. â€Å"it would be pretentious to try to express an opinion on which of the various grammatical theories is most vailed. Different grammatical theories have somewhat different goals†¦ in general. I believe that language teacher should evaluate grammatical theories in terms of the degree to which they comform to the linguistic habits that actually enable a language user to speak and understand the language†. Bagaimana guru bahasa untuk memutuskan antara dua teori pembelajaran bahasa? Apa teori tata bahasa yang paling berguna untuk guru bahasa? Untuk menjawab pertanyaan ini, saya hanya ingin merujuk pembaca untuk kertas oleh JB Carroll yang saya dikutip dalam bab 1. Dalam kertas yang katanya. â€Å"Itu akan sok mencoba untuk mengekspresikan pendapat yang dari teori gramatikal berbagai paling vailed. Teori tata bahasa yang berbeda memiliki tujuan yang agak berbeda †¦ secara umum. Saya percaya bahwa guru bahasa harus mengevaluasi teori tata bahasa dalam hal sejauh mana mereka comform ke kebiasaan linguistik yang benar-benar memungkinkan pengguna bahasa untuk berbicara dan mengerti bahasa â€Å". As for theories of language learning. Carroll suggest a synthesis of the two. I am inclined to agree with him that neither a pure â€Å"audiolingual habit theory† nor a pure â€Å"cognitive-code learning theory† can be comprehensive and correct. Each of the theories contains elements of truth, and each therefore to some degree wrong or incomplete. We need to extract what is valuable for each theory and put them together. Carroll calls the synthesis â€Å"cognitive habit-formation theory†. Adapun teori belajar bahasa. Carroll menyarankan sintesis dari dua. Saya cenderung setuju dengan dia bahwa baik murni â€Å"kebiasaan teori audiolingual† atau murni â€Å"kognitif-kode teori belajar† bisa tidak lengkap dan benar. Setiap teori mengandung unsur kebenaran, dan masing-masing karena itu untuk beberapa derajat yang salah atau tidak lengkap. Kita perlu untuk mengambil apa yang berharga bagi teori masing-masing dan menempatkan mereka bersama-sama. Carroll menyebut sintesis â€Å"kognitif kebiasaan-formasi teori†. The audiolingual habit theory is correct in that language behaviour is partly a matter habits. The audiolingual method with its emphasis on pattern practice and formations of habits fell out of favour because the theory made the wrong assumtions about that kinds of habits to form and how to form them. Instead of forming habits that have to do. For instance, with substituting words in sentences or with changing one kind of sentences into another. teacher sould form functional habits. The diffferent between the two is that the former takes no account of language ude in actual situations (where is the occasion for substitution for tables in real life outside the classroom?) while the latter does. For example, in teaching commands and requests, it is not enough to present the learners with statements to be changed into commands or requests. The stimulus is the sentence in the case. In forming fumctional habits the stimulus is the situations, the intentions and the listener. In situation A, if you need help you just shout â€Å"help! † ; in situation B, you may say, â€Å"please help me† or â€Å"could you helm me? † ; in situation C, you may say, â€Å"would you mind helping me? † and so on. Teori Kebiasaan audiolingual benar dalam perilaku bahasa adalah kebiasaan sebagian materi. Metode audiolingual dengan penekanan pada praktek pola dan formasi dari kebiasaan jatuh dari nikmat karena teori membuat assumtions salah tentang hal itu jenis kebiasaan untuk membentuk dan bagaimana membentuk mereka. Alih-alih membentuk kebiasaan yang harus dilakukan. Misalnya, dengan mengganti kata-kata dalam kalimat atau dengan mengubah satu jenis kalimat menjadi lain. Guru arwah membentuk kebiasaan fungsional. The diffferent antara keduanya adalah bahwa mantan tidak memperhitungkan bahasa ude dalam situasi yang sebenarnya (di mana merupakan kesempatan untuk substitusi untuk tabel dalam kehidupan nyata di luar kelas?) Sedangkan yang kedua tidak. Sebagai contoh, dalam mengajar perintah dan permintaan, itu tidak cukup untuk menyajikan peserta didik dengan pernyataan yang akan diubah menjadi perintah atau permintaan. Stimulus adalah kalimat dalam kasus ini. Dalam membentuk kebiasaan fumctional stimulus adalah situasi, maksud dan pendengar. Dalam situasi A, jika Anda memerlukan bantuan Anda hanya berteriak â€Å"membantu! â€Å", Dalam situasi B, Anda mungkin berkata, â€Å"tolong bantu saya† atau â€Å"bisa Anda helm saya? â€Å", Dalam situasi C, Anda mungkin berkata, â€Å"bisakah kau membantu saya â€Å"dan sebagainya?. Carroll also points out that the audingual habit theory wrongly assumed that practice and repetion were crucial factors in the formation of habits. Although practice and repetition have certain roles to play, they are not crucial in learning. Succesive repetition of the same response is, in fact, generally the wrong way to â€Å"stamp in† a habit; there are few kinds of learning where this is effective. Evocation of the response on a number of aperiodic, widely-spaced occasions, with interpolation of different material in the intervals, is a much more effective method has been insufficiently employed in pattern drills. Carroll juga menunjukkan bahwa teori kebiasaan audingual salah diasumsikan bahwa praktek dan pengulangan adalah faktor penting dalam pembentukan kebiasaan. Meskipun praktek dan pengulangan memiliki peran tertentu untuk bermain, mereka tidak penting dalam belajar. Pengulangan berturut dari respon yang sama, pada kenyataannya, umumnya cara yang salah untuk â€Å"cap di† kebiasaan, ada beberapa jenis belajar di mana ini efektif. Kebangkitan dari respon pada sejumlah aperiodik, luas-spasi kesempatan, dengan interpolasi dari bahan yang berbeda dalam interval, adalah metode yang jauh lebih efektif telah kurang digunakan dalam latihan pola. The element of truth in the cognitive-codelearning theory is that a knowledge of the facts and formal rules of the language can really be of help in guiding the learner to form the right language habits. However, knowledge of the rule alone is of on avail unless the learner is given opportunities to form the habits in the way suggested above. Forthermore, the facts of the language should be presented in a form easy to understand, and appropriate to the learner’s age and ability. Abstract rule should be illustrated with a number of concrete examples. Unsur kebenaran dalam teori kognitif-codelearning adalah bahwa pengetahuan tentang fakta-fakta dan aturan formal bahasa benar-benar dapat membantu dalam membimbing peserta didik untuk membentuk kebiasaan bahasa yang tepat. Namun, pengetahuan tentang aturan saja dari pada berhasil kecuali pelajar diberikan kesempatan untuk membentuk kebiasaan dalam cara yang disarankan di atas. Forthermore, fakta bahasa harus disajikan dalam bentuk yang mudah dimengerti, dan sesuai dengan usia peserta didik dan kemampuan. Aturan abstrak harus diilustrasikan dengan sejumlah contoh konkret. C. FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA PERTAMA DAN KEDUA A question often discussed with regard to second language learning is whether it is the same as first language acquisition. The answer depends on the stage at which the second language is learned. If it is learned at an early age before the first language is thoroughly mastered, or almost simultaneously with the first language then second language learning parallels first language learning. If it is learned at a later stage in the formal school setting, there are several observable differences. First of all, the child is exposed to the first language all his waking hours while he probably hears the second language only during the class hour. Secondly, there is a big difference in motivation. A child learning his first language is strongly motivated because his needs and wishes are satisfied by the use of language and his control of his environment and himself increases with his increasing mastery of his mother tongue. Not only this, but emotional and social ties are created by his use of the first language. The second language seldom fulfils such function when it is learned as a subject in the curriculum. Thirdly, as the child learns the first language he is also learning the concepts, while in learning the second language he seldom has to form new concepts except where these are foreign to his own culture. Finally, the habits established in first language learning tend to inhabit and interfere with his learning of the second language. It is also claimed that there is a critical period for language acquisition which extends up to puberty. But according to Carroll: â€Å"the evidence for a ‘critical period’ and decline in language acquisition ability during the middle school years is not strong, however, and even if there is some decline. I am not persuaded that one must appeal to biology to explain it. † (p. 109) Krashen has since confirmed Carroll’s view. Suatu pertanyaan yang sering dibahas terkait dengan pembelajaran bahasa kedua adalah apakah pembelajarannya sama dengan akuisisi bahasa pertama. Jawabannya tergantung pada tahap di mana bahasa kedua dipelajari. Jika dipelajari pada usia dini sebelum bahasa pertama benar-benar terkuasai, atau hampir bersamaan dengan bahasa pertama, maka pembelajaran bahasa kedua sejajar dengan pembelajar bahasa pertama. Jika dipelajari pada tahap berikutnya dalam bentuk sekolah formal, ada beberapa perbedaan yang diamati. Pertama-tama, anak terkena bahasa pertama selama dia terjaga sementara dia mungkin mendengar bahasa kedua hanya selama jam sekolah. Kedua, ada perbedaan besar dalam motivasi. Seorang anak belajar bahasa pertamanya sangat termotivasi karena kebutuhan dan keinginannya terpuaskan dengan manfaat bahasa dan kendali lingkungannya dan dirinya sendiri meningkat dengan meningkatnya penguasaan â€Å"bahasa ibunya†. Tidak hanya itu, tapi hubungan emosional dan sosial terciptaka oleh penggunaanya terhadap bahasa pertama. Bahasa kedua jarang memenuhi fungsi tersebut bila dipelajari sebagai subjek dalam kurikulum. Ketiga, ketika anak belajar bahasa pertama dia juga belajar konsep, sedangkan dalam mempelajari bahasa kedua jarang ia harus membentuk konsep-konsep baru kecuali konsep-konsep itu asing bagi budayanya sendiri. Akhirnya, kebiasaan-kebiasaan pada pembelajaran bahasa pertama cenderung menghuni dan mengganggu pembelajaran bahasa kedua. Hal ini juga menyatakan bahwa ada periode kritis bagi penguasaan bahasa yang meluas sampai masa puber. Tetapi menurut Carroll: â€Å"bukti untuk ‘periode kritis’ dan penurunan kemampuan akuisisi bahasa selama pertengahan masa sekolah tidak kuat, bagaimanapun, dan bahkan jika ada beberapa penurunan. Saya tidak yakin bahwa seseorang harus menarik biologi untuk menjelaskannya â€Å"(hal. 109). Krashen sejak mengkonfirmasi pandangan Carroll. There is one respect in which learning a first language is similar to learning a second language: it is in the process itself. Just as the young child makes generalisations and says â€Å"foots† or â€Å"goed†, so the Malay learner of English as a second language may over-generalise and say â€Å"foot of the sky† when he means the horizon. In second language learning there is also imitation and modelling, just as there is in first language learning. Ada suatu kecocokan dimana pembelajaran bahasa pertama mirip dengan belajar bahasa kedua: yaitu dalam proses itu sendiri. Sama seperti anak muda yang membuat generalisasi dan mengatakan â€Å"foots† atau â€Å"goed†, begitu pula pelajar Melayu yang belajar Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua mungkin over-generalisasi dan mengatakan â€Å"foots of the sky† ketika ia bermaksud mengatakan â€Å"the horizon†. Dalam pembelajaran bahasa kedua ada juga imitasi dan modeling, seperti yang ada dalam pembelajaran bahasa pertama. D. MOTIVATION IN L2 LEARNING MOTIVASI DALAM PEMBELAJARAN L2 It was mentioned above that there was a difference in motivation between first and second language learning. It is the lack of motivation that produces little or no difference in student performance in response to improved teaching methods or materials. This problem of motivation in second language learning has been studied and two kinds of motivation have been distinguished. One is called instrumental motivation: this is when the student learns the second language for instrumental purposes. For example, it may be a compulsory school subject or it may be required for post –graduate work, for his career or for travel abroad. There is no desire on his part to go beyond the language as a tool to fulfil rather limited purposes. The other kind of motivation is called integrative. In this case, the student learns the second language with the desire to identify himself with the native speakers and to enrich his life by contact with another culture. It was found that students with integrative motivation have greater success at learning the second language than those with merely instrumental motivation. Telah disebutkan di atas bahwa ada suatu perbedaan dalam motivasi antara belajar bahasa pertama dan kedua. Ini adalah kekurangan dari motivasi bahwa motivasi menghasilkan sedikit atau tidak adanya perbedaan terhadap prestasi siswa dalam menanggapi metode pengajaran atau materi. Masalah motivasi dalam belajar bahasa kedua ini telah dipelajari dan dua jenis motivasi telah dibedakan. Satu disebut motivasi instrumental: yaitu ketika siswa belajar bahasa kedua untuk tujuan instrumental. Sebagai contoh, mungkin suatu subjek sekolah yang wajib atau mungkin diperlukan untuk tugas pasca sarjana, untuk karirnya atau untuk perjalanan ke luar negeri. Tidak adan keinginan pada bagiannya yang melampaui bahasa sebagai alat untuk memenuhi tujuan yang terbatas. Jenis lain dari motivasi disebut integratif. Dalam hal ini, siswa belajar bahasa kedua dengan keinginan untuk mengidentifikasi dirinya dengan penutur asli dan memperkaya hidupnya dengan kontak dengan budaya lain. Ditemukan bahwa siswa dengan motivasi integratif memiliki keberhasilan yang lebih besar dalam mempelajari bahasa kedua dibandingkan dengan motivasi instrumental. E. LANGUAGE INTERFERENCE GANGGUAN BAHASA Another aspect of psycholinguistics that is directly relevant to second language teacher has been touched upon in discussing contrastive analysis. That is, the study of interference from L1 in learning L2. The theory is that in learning L1 certain habits of perceiving and performing have to be established and the old habits tend to interlude and interfere with the learning, so that the student may speak L2 with the intonation of his L1 or the word order of his L1, and so on. We noted in the last chapter that though such interference does occur, not all errors in L2 learning can be accounted for by interference from L1. L2 learning like L1 acquisition appears to proceed by stages when new bits of the language are imperfectly learned, giving rise to what has been called interlanguage. Aspek lain dari psikolinguistik yang secara langsung relevan dengan guru bahasa kedua telah disinggung dalam pembahasan analisis kontrastif. yaitu, the study of interference from L1 in learning L2. Teorinya adalah bahwa dalam belajar L1 kebiasaan dalam mengamati dan performing harus dibentuk dan kebiasaan lama cenderung selingan dan mengganggu pembelajaran, sehingga siswa berbicara L2 dengan intonasi L1-nya atau urutan kata L1-nya , dan seterusnya. Kami mencatat dalam bab terakhir bahwa meskipun gangguan tersebut tidak terjadi, tidak semua kesalahan dalam pembelajaran L2 dapat dipertanggungjawabkan oleh gangguan dari L1. pembelajaran L2 seperti akuisisi L1 muncul untuk melanjutkan secara bertahap ketika bit baru dari bahasa tidak dipelajari secara sempurna, sehingga menimbulkan apa yang disebut interlanguage. CHAPTER III CONGCLUTION From chapter 2 in this report , we make some point : 1. Psycholinguistics is a field study that combines psychology and linguistics. The term itself was coined in 1951. Though the study had been going on eveb in the nineteenth century in the form of the study of language development. It includes a great variety of topics that are of interest to language teachers. 2. theory of language acquisition is based on the view that language is behaviour that results from habits and habits are formed by practice and repetion. 3. If the second is learned at an early age before the first language is thoroughly mastered, or almost simultaneously with the first language then second language learning parallels first language learning. If it is learned at a later stage in the formal school setting, there are several observable differences. – different motivation. – Emotional and social ties are created by his use of the first language. Meanwhile, The second language seldom fulfils such function when it is learned as a subject in the curriculum. – When we Learn first language, we also learn the concepts, while in learning the second language we seldom has to form new concepts except where these are foreign to his own culture. 4. The old habits tend to interlude and interfere with the learning, so that the student may speak L2 with the intonation of his L1 or the word order of his L1, and so on.

Argument and Collaboration Essay Example

Argument and Collaboration Essay Example Argument and Collaboration Essay Argument and Collaboration Essay In the library there are many â€Å"evidence and arguments that collaboration pays dividends. Library impact research demonstrates that collaboration is essential in maximizing the positive impact of library media programs on student achievement and school success. Unfortunately, both the organizational structure and the culture in most schools discourage collaborative efforts among faculty members. Conference participants wishing to promote increased collaboration in their schools may need to draw on a variety of material to use in crafting their arguments. (Hartzell, 2007 p 2) â€Å"This sampling of resources is divided into three sections: (1) resources specific to teacher-librarian cooperation and collaboration, (2) resources relating to some deliberately targeted collaboration opportunities, and (3) resources regarding the general nature of workplace collaboration, especially in the school setting. † (Hartzell, 2007 p 2) Teacher-Librarian Collaboration Teacher-librarian collaboration is at the heart of effective library media practice. Research results indicate that students develop higher quality information literacy skills when instruction on those skills is integrated with subject matter studies, and an argument can be made that the learning of the subject matter itself is similarly enhanced. (Hartzell,2007 p3) Deliberately Targeted Collaboration One area of school librarianship often neglected in discussion of library functions is how the librarian can assist in helping particular populations in the school, both directly and through working with other faculty members. Hartzell, 2007 p 4) Collaboration General Resources Collaboration is difficult to achieve in schools. The culture resists it and the organizational structure discourages it. These sources offer some insight into the challenges of fostering teacher collaboration with anyone. (Hartzell, 2007 p6) Here is some example of argument and collaboration between library, school and principals: â€Å"Principals, teachers and librarians don’t always se e each other clearly. Perspectives: Librarian sees library media center as center of school. Teacher sees classroom as center of school Principal sees school as constellation of interacting elements. † (Hartzell, 2007 p9) Professional preparation Librarian: Little administrative perspective irony, because librarians reach every program Administer facility and budget Facilitate instruction with and through others Teacher: One adult in one room with one group of students for one period of time Administrator: No significant library study outside of law. Negative potential: censorship, copyright violation. (Hartzell, 2007 p9) Little or no interaction in the broader field How many teachers and administrators read librarian publications and attend librarian conferences? How many librarians write for teacher and administrator publications and present at teacher and administrator conferences? Result: Many teachers and administrators don’t think of librarians as integral to school success or to their own personal professional success. Opportunity loss: Inaccurate librarian evaluation, teacher forms, teaching function, revert to stereotype, low return on librarian investment, staff reductions, staffing by non-professionals, budget cuts or elimination. Hartzell, 2007 p 11) Why Should Principals Support School Libraries? Principals should support school libraries because it is in both their students’ and their own best interests to do so. Quality library media programs can enhance students achievement, committed librarians can help principals enhance their own administrative practice. (Hartzell, 2007 p14) How Can Principals Support Libraries? E ducate themselves to library and librarian potential. Reconfigure the librarian’s job to maximize realization of that potential. Hire high-quality, forward-looking, energetic, innovative librarians. Provide budget resources adequate to new roles and demands. Effectively and accurately evaluate both the program and the librarian on jointly developed criteria recognizing library media work as simultaneously integral to instructional quality but distinct from classroom teaching itself. (Harezell, 2007 p15) In the conclusion I would like to say that argument and collaboration explain importance of the open dialogue between libraries, schools and principals for the achievement of the best results in educational process, and administration functioning.

Compare and contrast the role of a financial manager with the role of an accountant

Compare and contrast the role of a financial manager with the role of an accountant THE FINANCIAL MANAGER AND THE ACCOUNTANTDoing business in today's economy is a very challenging endeavor where one needs to balance various aspects of the business not all being profit related such as good citizenship and being environmental friendly with others that are profit related and subject to a fierce competition from a multitude of global players having various geographical competitive advantages.In this context, the financials of a business is at the center of any organization's activities and the accountants and financial managers are the people making sure they are in line with the organization's goals and all organizational functions are synchronized for best results.To compare and contrast the role a financial manager with that of an accountant, we must first briefly describe them.An accountant performs the function of registering the data of all organizational activities that can be reduced to transactions and periodically preparing the four financial statements: The B alance Sheet, The Statement of Cash Flows,The Income Statement and The Statement of Changes in Owner's Equity.FinancesThe financial manager function requires to use the information prepared by the accountants and based upon other consideration such as the changes in technologies, society, politics and natural events make predictions and decisions to best sustain the organization's profit related goals and at the same time maintain an acceptable position with regard to the not profit related goals.All these activities need to be flexible and to accommodate changes by a multitude of factors some time known and predicable and some times not. With all this sad, it is transparent that the financial manager is a consumer of accounting output that is the financial statements, and based upon this information decisions for future actions are taken. These actions, when implemented generate results and the outcome of these results is...

How to Make Yogurt With Chemistry

How to Make Yogurt With Chemistry Yogurt is made by fermenting milk. Its high in protein, calcium, and probiotics (good bacteria). Heres how to make yogurt and a look at the chemistry of yogurt. Chemistry Yogurt forms when bacteria ferment the sugar lactose (C12H22O11) into lactic acid (C3H6O3). The lactic acid makes the milk more acidic (lower the pH), causing the proteins in milk to coagulate. The main protein in dairy milk is casein. The acidity gives yogurt its tangy flavor, while the coagulated proteins result in a thickened, creamy texture. There is no simple chemical equation for yogurt production since multiple reactions occur. Several types of bacteria can ferment lactose. Yogurt cultures may contain Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, other Lactobacillus strains, Streptococcus thermophilus, and bifidobacteria. Recipe You can make yogurt from any type of milk. Although most yogurt is made from bovine milk (e.g., cow, sheep, goat), the fermentation process works on other types of milk, as long as they contain a sugar for the bacteria to ferment and protein that can be coagulated. Yogurt can be made from soy milk, coconut milk, and almond milk. The first time you make yogurt, you need a starter culture as a source of the bacteria. You can use ordinary store-bought yogurt with active culture or you can use freeze-dried yogurt starter. If you use a commercial yogurt starter, follow the packaging directions, since activating the culture varies depending on the product. Once you make your first batch of yogurt, you can use a couple of tablespoons of it to start future batches. While it may seem like you would want to add more active culture to a recipe, adding too much bacteria produces a sour yogurt rather than a pleasantly tangy yogurt. Ingredients   1 quart milk (any kind)1/4 to 1/2 cup non-fat dry milk (optional)2 tablespoons plain yogurt with live cultures (or you can use freeze-dried bacteria instead) Recipe Set the starter yogurt out at room temperature while you prepare the milk. This warms the yogurt so that it wont chill your recipe too much when you add it later.Heat the milk to 185 °F (85 °C). The purpose of this step is to re-pasteurize the yogurt, preventing any unwanted bacteria from growing, and to denature the proteins so that they will be able to coalesce and thicken the yogurt. The easiest way to do this is to use a double boiler or set your container of milk inside a pan of water. Heat the water to near-boiling. Dont worry- the ​​milk cant boil using this technique. If you have to heat the milk directly, stir it constantly and watch the temperature to make sure it doesnt boil or burn. If you do not have a thermometer, the milk will start to froth at 185 °F (85 °C).Once the milk reaches the temperature or starts to froth, remove it from heat and allow the milk to cool 110 °F (43 °C). One way to do this is to place the container of milk in a cold wat er bath. Otherwise, you can leave the milk on the counter and allow it to cool. Either way, stir the milk occasionally so that the temperature is uniform. Dont proceed to the next step until the temperature of the milk is below 120 °F(49 °C), but dont let the milk cool below 90 °F (32 °C). 110 °F (43 °C) is the optimal temperature. At this point, you can add nonfat dry milk. This is an optional step that helps the yogurt thicken more readily, plus it adds nutritional content to the yogurt. Its purely a matter of preference, whether you add the dry milk or not.Stir in the starter yogurt.Put the yogurt into clean, sterile containers. Containers can be sterilized by boiling them. The reason for sterilizing the containers is to prevent unwanted mold or bacteria from growing in your yogurt. Cover each container with plastic wrap or a lid.Keep the yogurt as close to 100 °F (38 °C) as possible and undisturbed, to bacterial growth. Some ovens have a proof setting that you can use. Other ideas include setting the yogurt on a heating mat (being sure to check the temperature) or placing the containers in a warm water bath. Youll have a custard-like yogurt after about 7 hours. It wont resemble store-bought yogurt because that has thickeners and additional ingredients. Your yogurt should have a yellowish or greenish liq uid on top, a creamy custard texture, and may have a cheesy odor. The thin yellowish liquid is whey. You can pour it off or mix it in, whichever you prefer. Its completely edible, though you may add fruit, flavorings, or herbs, according to your taste. If you leave the yogurt at this temperature longer than 7 hours, it will thicken and become tangier. When the yogurt is the thickness and flavor you want, refrigerate it. Homemade yogurt will keep for 1-2 weeks. You can use yogurt from this batch as a starter for the next batch. If you are going to use yogurt as a starter, use unflavored yogurt, within 5-7 days.

Critically analyse the role of the board of directors and senior Essay

Critically analyse the role of the board of directors and senior management in managing enterprise risk in an energy company - Essay Example Energy and Resources companies have come increasingly under the regulatory purview. Due to brisk changes in the industry, they face stiffening regulatory requirements, ever-increasing cyber issues and rapidly changing technology. Such compliances and risks have a strong impact on the company’s operations and business strategies that makes it utterly imperative for the management to adopt approaches to manage and mitigate risks and cope up with regulations. Risk Management in the Energy Sector A good progress has been made in the past in developing comprehensive enterprise risk management (ERM) programs. ERM is set to become an industry standard for management of risk because it is probably the most effective way to manage risk internal or external to the organization (Accenture Global Risk Management, 2011). The key risk areas that have been identified for energy and resources sector can be listed as follows: 1. High competition in the industry participants: Energy industry pa rticipants have a very unique competitiveness. Each player has a different advantage within the industry. One firm may have a good resource support while the other might be a technologically strong firm and a third would have a huge market. Nowadays, competition is shifting and each firm is trying to develop on every frontier. International firms are thus facing challenges by national players reducing their market size. 2. Limited sources of alternative energy: Despite the fact that there are alternatives to limited source of non renewable energy, energy companies still haven’t been able to progress much on developing much on alternative sources. Alternate sources have an irreplaceable demand, but on the supply side, they face a lot of constraints. There hydrocarbon content on earth is enough to last a century, but the problem lies in lack of knowledge on its development and usage. These sources are limited by limitations in scale, feasibility and fitness (Holmes, 2004). 3. G overnment Interventions: Most of government regulations in the energy industry are directed towards regulating supply. Operational policies, regulations on carbon emissions and energy security norms affect both the demand as well as the supply side of energy business. Role of Board of Directors and Senior Management Post recession, the scene for energy companies has not only been tough but also challenging in terms of greater project undertakings and complex compliances. Companies have also had to venture in remotest regions simply to manage demand and supply side challenges. Management has to focus on strategy, production, enterprise risk along with operational excellence. With the advent of regulators, management has started to recognise the need for risk management to enhance business performance. With time, a lot of change has come in managing enterprise risk. New tools, better techniques and risk measuring methodologies have come up. One can only predict how enterprise risk man agement shall evolve in the coming times. As Energy sector risk officers, senior managers and the board of directors need to be have the capability to comprehend what possible risks could potentially arise in the near future and how exactly to take preventive measures that will help in combat. With such approach, all downsides that

Thr Gate Gourmet service company study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Thr Gate Gourmet service company study - Essay Example However incorporation of a foreign program in the operations scenario gives rise to different challenges and problems in place that need to be effectively administered to contribute to the overall gains. Herein this paper focuses on properly evaluating the parameter of utility of such software in rightly helping the company management and the stakeholders gain potential information relating to external environment changes and also in addressing the problems emerging thereof. The paper divided along potential sections would contribute in getting useful recommendations along several facets thus helping in the holistic development of the service enterprise, Gate Gourmet in effectively serving airline passengers. Contents Contents 3 Introduction 5 Discussion 5 Critical Determination of the Systems that Enable the Efficient use of Input Resources 5 The Input-Output Related Transformation Process 5 Process of Optimally Using the Available Resources 6 The Case of Gate Gourmet 7 Trade-Off an d Challenges Faced by Gate Gourmet during the Process 8 Benefits and Challenges Faced by Gate Gourmet in integrating Information Technology in Supply Chain 9 Benefits 9 Challenges 11 Recommendations for Enhanced Performance of Information Technology Driven Supply Chains 12 ERP Implementation and Challenges 13 Challenges Faced by Gate Gourmet in the Implementation Phase of Organisation Wide Information Systems (ERP) 13 Addressing ERP Implementation Problems in Gate Gourmet 14 Tacit and Implicit Knowledge Use in Gate Gourmet 15 Case of Gate Gourmet 15 Conclusions and Recommendations 16 References 17 Introduction Gate Gourmet is a firm that works in the rendering of effective operations and services to airline passengers in the mode of rendering quality food and catering products. The company in the unison with other employee groups also renders other value addition services relating to cleansing, baggage checking, loading and unloading and other flight crew services. Gate Gourmet has effectively incorporated information technology to enhance the level of integration and competency involved in its functions and collaboration with other stakeholders like suppliers supplementing them with information relating to market and demand changes. The paper in this connection tends to evaluate the effectiveness of the information technology component rightly integrated and incorporated by the company in its service delivery network. Discussion Critical Determination of the Systems that Enable the Efficient use of Input Resources The Input-Output Related Transformation Process The Transformation Process related to the input-output system relates to the effective integration of different type of resources pertaining to human, financial and technological capital for the production of goods and services as needed outputs. The model for the Transformation Process used in Operations for effectively transforming inputs into effective outputs can be rendered as follows. Figure 1 Th e inputs segment of the Transformation Process tends to incorporate two types of resources like Transformed and the Transforming. Transformed resources are as such that get readily transformed to serve as outputs in the process while Transforming Resources are such that aid in the effective transformation of inputs into proper outputs. Herein the Transformation

Outside speech Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Outside speech - Assignment Example Second, it is the role of the human resource development section to improve on the quality of this employee through programs such as training and seminars to make them fit in the contemporary environment. Therefore, as emerging leaders of this great nation, we shall be in various leadership positions in the future. To make the workforce that one has go that extra mile to not only deliver to the given goals of the company, they need motivation. Motivation can be done through increased salaries, recognition of the best performing employees and promotions. On top of that, motivation without creating a good ethical culture in the business may not work well or deliver the desired results in the company. Therefore, ladies and gentlemen, as leaders in the future, let us uphold great ethical standards both while serving and out of the work place. As managers and human resource personnel, let us know that to make the given employees to work they not only need motivation but a good working environment that will make them own up the responsibilities that they are given.’ I gave the speech to students during an organized trade fair where the students were accorded the chance to interact and give their views on ways to improve organizational performance. The goal of the speech was to pin point the need of merging the knowledge in human resource management and human resource development to get a highly performing employee team. In the speech, I provided the audience with the approaches to both ideas since most people rarely understand the difference between the two and how they can be merged to increase the organizational performance. I made the speech in the following manner; - Since I had prepared to give this speech having explored various strengths and drawbacks while doing it, I did not suffer from anxiety. All the points that I was to address were coherently put